Ohe, T. The history of locomotive syndrome-3. Japanese Orthop. Association (JOA). 122, 6 (2020). (In Japanese).
Nakamura, K. & Ogata, T. Locomotive syndrome: definition and management. Clin. Rev. Bone Min. Metab. 14, 56–67 (2016).
Nakamura, K. Locomotive syndrome: Disability-free life expectancy and locomotive organ health in a super-aged society. J. Orthop. Sci. 14, 1–2 (2009).
Nakamura, K. The concept and treatment of locomotive syndrome: its acceptance and spread in Japan. J. Orthop. Sci. 16, 489–491 (2011).
The Japanese Orthopedic. Association official locomotive syndrome prevention awareness official website. https://locomo-joa.jp. Accessed 8 May 2025.
Seichi, A. et al. Development of a screening tool for risk of locomotive syndrome in the elderly: the 25-question geriatric locomotive function scale. J. Orthop. Sci. 17, 163–172 (2012).
Muranaga, S. & Hirano, K. Development of a convenient way to predict ability to walk, using a two-step test. J. Showa Med. Assoc. 63, 301–308 (2003). (In Japanese).
Muranaga, S. Evaluation of the muscular strength of the lower extremities using the standing movement and clinical application. J. Showa Med. Assoc. 61, 362–367 (2001). (In Japanese).
Yoshimura, N. et al. Prevalence of knee osteoarthritis, lumbar spondylosis, and osteoporosis in Japanese men and women: the research on osteoarthritis/osteoporosis against disability study. J. Bone Min. Metab. 27, 620–628 (2009).
Wang, M. & Seibel, M. J. Secondary fracture prevention in primary care: A narrative review. Osteoporos. Int. 35, 1359–1376 (2024).
Middleton, A., Fritz, S. L. & Lusardi, M. Walking speed: the functional vital sign. J. Aging Phys. Act. 23, 314–322 (2015).
Yates, T. et al. Association of walking Pace and handgrip strength with all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: A UK biobank observational study. Eur. Heart J. 38, 3232–3240 (2017).
Celis-Morales, C. A. et al. Walking Pace is associated with lower risk of all-cause and cause-specific mortality. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 51, 472–480 (2019).
Ueno, K. et al. Clinical utility of simple subjective gait speed for the risk stratification of heart failure in a primary prevention setting. Sci. Rep. 12, 11641 (2022).
Kalligerou, F. et al. Objective and subjective measurements of motor function: results from the HELIAD study. J. Prev. Alzheimers Dis. 9, 743–751 (2022).
He, P. et al. Combined handgrip strength and walking pace, genetic susceptibility, and incident hypertension: A prospective study in UK biobank. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 33, 989–999 (2023).
Iwasaki, M. et al. Fast walking is a preventive factor against new-onset diabetes mellitus in a large cohort from a Japanese general population. Sci. Rep. 11, 716 (2021).
Mehmet, H., Robinson, S. R. & Yang, A. W. H. Assessment of gait speed in older adults. J. Geriatr. Phys. Ther. 43, 42–52 (2020).
Yamamoto, Y. et al. Association between subjective walking speed and metabolic diseases in individuals with obesity: A cross-sectional analysis. Sci. Rep. 14, 28228 (2024).
Yoshimura, N. et al. Association between new indices in the locomotive syndrome risk test and decline in mobility: third survey of the ROAD study. J. Orthop. Sci. 20, 896–905 (2015).
Taniguchi, M. et al. Prevalence and physical characteristics of locomotive syndrome stages as classified by the new criteria 2020 in older Japanese people: results from the Nagahama study. BMC Geriatr. 21, 489 (2021).
Nishimura, A. et al. Do exercise habits during middle age affect locomotive syndrome in old age? Mod. Rheumatol. 28, 334–338 (2018).
Nakamura, M. et al. Physical performance measures associated with locomotive syndrome in middle-aged and older Japanese women. J. Geriatr. Phys. Ther. 38, 202–207 (2015).
Saito, Y. et al. Evaluation of gait characteristics in subjects with locomotive syndrome using wearable gait sensors. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 23, 457 (2022).
Sato, H., Kondo, S., Saito, M. & Saura, R. Effects of strengthening the hip flexor muscles on walking ability and the locomotive syndrome rank test: an intervention study. J. Orthop. Sci. 25, 892–896 (2020).
Nishimura, T. et al. Associations between locomotive and non-locomotive physical activity and physical performance in older community-dwelling females with and without locomotive syndrome: A cross-sectional study. J. Physiol. Anthropol. 40, 18 (2021).
Yoshihara, T. et al. Association between locomotive syndrome and blood parameters in Japanese middle-aged and elderly individuals: A cross-sectional study. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 20, 104 (2019).
Syddall, H. E., Westbury, L. D., Cooper, C. & Sayer, A. A. Self-reported walking speed: A useful marker of physical performance among community-dwelling older people? J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 16, 323–328 (2015).
Komatsu, K. et al. Standardized evaluation of diabetic retinopathy using artificial intelligence and its association with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease in japan: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One. 19, e0315752 (2024).
Akahane, M., Yoshihara, S., Maeyashiki, A., Tanaka, Y. & Imamura, T. Lifestyle factors are significantly associated with the locomotive syndrome: A cross-sectional study. BMC Geriatr. 17, 241 (2017).
Yoshinaga, S. et al. Lifestyle related signs of locomotive syndrome in the general Japanese population: A cross-sectional study. J. Orthop. Sci. 24, 1105–1109 (2019).
Kobayashi, T. et al. Clinical characteristics of locomotive syndrome categorised by the 25-question geriatric locomotive function scale: A systematic review. BMJ Open. 13, e068645 (2023).
Kobayashi, T. et al. The association of comorbidities with the 25-question geriatric locomotive function scale and the diagnosis of locomotive syndrome. J. Orthop. Sci. 28, 453–459 (2023).
Mitani, G. et al. Evaluation of the association between locomotive syndrome and metabolic syndrome. J. Orthop. Sci. 23, 1056–1062 (2018).
Yamada, T. et al. Prevalence of locomotive dysfunction exacerbating systolic blood pressure and abdominal circumference: A longitudinal cohort analysis. Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord. 19, 562–566 (2021).
Yamaguchi, S. et al. Association of locomotive syndrome with present and past physical activities, and self-reported gait speed: A cross sectional study. Chiba Med. J. 94, 9–17 (2018).
Ohtsuki, M. et al. Relationships between body mass index, lifestyle habits, and locomotive syndrome in young- and middle-aged adults: A cross-sectional survey of workers in Japan. J. Occup. Health. 61, 311–319 (2019).
Ishihara, Y. et al. Locomotive syndrome relation to daily physical activity, physical function, and body composition in elderly people: a pilot study. Juntendo Med. J. 62, 225–230 (2016).
Uesugi, Y., Kanaya, S., Nakanishi, H. & Naito, Y. The relationship between locomotive syndrome risk, gait pattern, and standing posture in young Japanese women: A cross-sectional study. Healthc. (Basel). 8, 565 (2020).
Yamaguchi, S. et al. Association of locomotive syndrome with present and past physical activities, and self-reported gait speed: A cross sectional study. Chiba Med. J. 94E, 9–17 (2018).
Inanaga, S. et al. Relationship between the 25-question geriatric locomotive function scale and physical function in the elderly people. J. Bone Min. Metab. 41, 550–556 (2023).
Fujita, N. et al. Lumbar spinal Canal stenosis leads to locomotive syndrome in elderly patients. J. Orthop. Sci. 24, 19–23 (2019).
Kato, S. et al. Improvement of locomotive syndrome with surgical treatment in patients with degenerative diseases in the lumbar spine and lower extremities: A prospective cohort study. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 21, 515 (2020).
Ohmori, T. et al. The efficacy of total hip arthroplasty on locomotive syndrome and its related physical function in patients with hip osteoarthritis. J. Orthop. Sci. 26, 389–395 (2021).
Otani, K. et al. Locomotor dysfunction and risk of cardiovascular disease, quality of life, and medical costs: design of the locomotive syndrome and health outcome in Aizu cohort study (LOHAS) and baseline characteristics of the study population. J. Orthop. Sci. 17, 261–271 (2012).
Verma, A., Kandwal, P., Gowda, A. K. S. & Yadav, R. A prospective study on gait impairment in patients with symptomatic lumbar canal stenosis and impact of surgical intervention on gait function. Clin. Spine Surg. Online ahead of print at (2024). https://doi.org/10.1097/BSD.0000000000001752
Santos, F. et al. Norms for usual and fast walking speed in adults 45–69 years old from the French general population: Constances study. J. Am. Med. Dir. Assoc. 25, 266–274 (2024).
Yamada, K. et al. Reference values for the locomotive syndrome risk test quantifying mobility of 8681 adults aged 20–89 years: A cross-sectional nationwide study in Japan. J. Orthop. Sci. 25, 1084–1092 (2020).

